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One of the most important books in Islamic history, The Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun discusses the rise and fall of civilizations, the importance of discoveries and innovation, population growth and its effect on society, and more. The Muqaddimah is a book that influences almost every intellectual discussion from medieval history to modern anthropology - it has been translated into 15 different languages. But if you don't know Arabic or Persian you will want to read it in English translation. Luckily for English-speaking readers there are many versions available online free of charge. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, a number of scholars wrote down their ideas on how to succeed in government and society. The best known is Al-Farabi, who wrote the "Al-Ishara." He decided that a ruler should be knowledgeable about things other than religion, and that there were three ways to do this: study history, philosophy or military science. And since his own mind was well read in all three fields he considered himself qualified to be a ruler. Unfortunately for him he lived at a time when warring Islamic tribes were constantly fighting each other and searching for new lands; he lacked political experience and had little knowledge of current events. Ibn Khaldun's book falls somewhere between that of Al-Farabi and that of another great medieval political thinker, Ibn Rushd (Averroes). The Muqaddimah was written in 1377, but he wrote it to explain his view of history. His version is very different from the views of either Al-Farabi or Ibn Rushd. He believed that there are two important influences on government -- climate, and the presence or absence of social cohesion. The first will be our main focus here because it plays an even greater role in determining the forms of human society than does the availability or lack of natural resources. The Muqaddimah means "Introduction" or "Prologue." The book consists of eight books, the first three being the longest and most important. They discuss religions, states, laws, commerce, public administration, private administration, military science and different types of social organization. Ibn Khaldun's model of cultural evolution contradicts that presented by either Al-Farabi or Ibn Rushd. His view is that societies are in a constant struggle for survival in which they rise to greatness only to be brought low again by the very forces that brought them up in the first place. Thus he argues that there are four "ages of mankind." This is because Ibn Khaldun maintains that the source of all progress lies in the state. The state was once capable of governing individuals because it was small, could maintain order and was not yet corrupted by power. However, as states grow in size and power they cannot allow themselves to be ruled by any one person or group. Thus they become corrupt and torn by internal struggles between rulers who are unable to govern their own people. The Muqaddimah contains many topics that are relevant both for students of medieval history as well as students of politics today. The book explores whether government is best left to the few or whether it should be made accessible to all. cfa1e77820